Radiography as Art: Laura Splan's "X-Ray Visions and Morphine Dreams"

Laura Splan is a mixed media artist based in New York City. Some of her works include a scarf knit with IV tubing which connects to the dorsal venous network of the wearer's hand, another is hooked yarn wall hangings of micro-organisms like anthrax and E. coli. In an attempt to produce something both beautiful and disturbing, her work depicts anatomical and biomedical imagery through craft mediums like crochet and knitting. She uses her own blood and skin in many of her paintings and photographs. The viewer experiences the duality in her work, comforted by the familiar image of a doily while simultaneously unsettled by the biological gore (Splan, 2009).

In 2005, Splan produced the work "X-Ray Visions and Morphine Dreams". The work consists of three backlit printed acrylic images. The images are actually digital collages created from found radiographs from the internet and medical books. The body parts taken from the radiographs make up domestic objets; a chair, pillows, and a table. Splan drew the title from the story of Bertha Roentgen, Wilhelm's wife, who supposedly developed hypochondria in her later years. According to the story, Wilhelm gave Bertha multiple injections of morphine daily to deal with the disease (Splan, 2005).

Splan's Slipcover (2005) depicts a side chair. The chair legs are each made from the tibia and fibula of a child. The seat cushion made of a barium and air filled colon. The side rails of the back are made from a section of the vertebral column. The back rails are made from the phlanges of the hand. The chair appears to be covered by a fabric slipcover.

Slipcover (Splan, 2005).

Splan's Pillow Shams (2005) is composed of pillow shams filled with barium and air filled colons. The pillow shams feature embroidered scalloped edges, mimicking the haustra of the large intestine .

Pillow Shams (Splan, 2005).

Splan's Tablecloth (2005) depicts a tabletop created from an elliptical cutout of a skull, supported by legs composed of the phalanges of the hand. The table is covered with a tablecloth with a decorative edging.

Tablecloth (Splan, 2005).

These images depict human anatomy covered in decorative fabric instead of flesh. The materials typically used to construct furniture are replaced with comparable biological tissues. Wood is replaced with long bones and thoracic vertebrae, a marble table top replaced with skull bones, and cotton stuffing replaced with a distended colon. 


The images at first glance, are black and white pictures of objects we see everyday, but a second glance reveals things that most see much less often. These images might be creepy to a layperson, but to a medical imaging professional, these images are familiar shapes beautifully rearranged.

You can see "X-Ray Visions and Morphine Dreams" and Splan's other works on her website.

Splan, L. (2005). X-Ray Visions and Morphine Dreams. Retrieved from http://www.laurasplan.com/projects/xray_visions.html

Splan, L. (2009). Laura Splan. Retrieved from http://www.laurasplan.com/index.html

Public Perspectives of Medical Imaging

Before the advent of medical imaging techniques, the skeleton was seen only in death. Bones therefore were undoubtedly a sign of death (McGrath, 2002, p. 111). When Roentgen radiographed his wife Bertha's hand, seeing the image of her own bones meant seeing a premonition of death (Dewing, 1962, p. 29). Early in 1896, a London reporter published a piece commenting on the indecency of looking at other people's bones, suggesting all radiographs should be burned (Kelves, 1997, p. 116). Looking through someones flesh meant predicting or even foreshadowing one's death. (Van Dijck, 2005, p. 94).

In the 80's Philip Niachros commissioned Andy Warhol to paint his portrait. Niachros, being Warhol's friend, likely knew that he wouldn't simply paint a picture. Warhol produced a set of silkscreen images made from the CT images of the Niachros' skull. Warhol's images present a strong contrast to the conservative portrait; an opaque facade of the individual being depicted. The CT images are produced through an "objective" technique, thus exposing a higher degree of "truth". The theme of the skull in this image propagates the historical association of skeletons and death. Warhol's portrait reminds the subject that they too, will die. By this time, medical images were beginning to be more prevalent in the media. The images were becoming closer to common in the public eye.

Andy Warhol, Philip's Skull, 1985 (Gagosian Gallery, 1999).

The perception of our interiors are shaped by many factors including medicine and media (Van Dijck, 2005, p.138). It is the technology in medicine that produces the images of our inner anatomies, but media delivers and construes these images. In the early days, newspapers published the shocking images of a hand radiograph. The manner in which the images were described connoted death. The public has been increasingly exposed to medical images to the extent that they are no longer surprising. Medical images are very much a part of mass media.

Take, for example, the case of 2-year old Lakshmi Tatma's sugery removing her conjoined twin. Daily Mail Online as well as many other newspapers published radiographs and CT reconstructions of the girl before and after surgery (Daily Mail Online, 2007). Medical images are used in the media as scientific proof.

Lakshmi Tatma. (Daily Mail Online, 2007)

The way we view medical images is influenced by popular culture, the medical system, personal experience, and political economy (Dumit, 2004). Are medical images still a premonition of death or has the meaning shifted to a sense of progress towards better health?

Daily Mail Online. (2007). First pictures reveal success of life-saving surgery on toddler with eight limbs. Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-491757/First-pictures-reveal-success-life-saving-surgery-toddler-limbs.html

Dewing, S. B. (1962). Modern Radiology in Historical Perspective. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publisher

Dumit. J. (2004). Picturing personhood: Brain scans and biomedical identity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Gagosian Gallery. (1999). Andy Warhol: Philip's skull. Retrieved from http://i1.exhibit-e.com/gagosian/2cf9ac98.pdf

Kelves, B. (1997). Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

McGrath, R. (2002). Seeing her sex: Medical archives and the female body. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.

Certification Exams

In some countries, including England and Australia, graduating from an accredited program is the requirement for entry to practice for a Radiological Technologist. Alternately, in Canada, the US, and other countries, certification exams are required to be a practicing Technologist.

In Canada, all students graduating from Canadian accredited programs must write the Canadian Association of Medical Radiation Technologists (CAMRT) certification exam in order to practice in Canada. The exam is a competency based exam, written in two 3-hour sessions, with a total of 250 multiple choice questions (CAMRT, 2009). In the US, the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) provides certification in Radiography. Candidates write a 220 multiple choice question exam. (ARRT, 2010). In the Philippines, graduates of a recognized school with a Baccalaureate degree in radiologic technology sit for the registry exam (PRC, 2010).

The big question for any student is how to prepare for this extremely important exam.

The CAMRT provides, in addition to the study guide, an online practice exam. You can take this exam by going to http://camrt.protraining.com/ and registering. There are practice exams for all of the CAMRT professional streams including Radiological Technology, Nuclear Medicine, Radiation Therapy, and Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

Today, Blogger and Instructor, Hariette made a post on her blog "Radiology 101" about a Radiologic Technology review program. The program consists of lecture-style review over a period of two months to prepare students for their board examination.

Another approach is to use the study guides published, for example Mosby's Comprehensive Review of Radiography or Lange Q&A: Radiography Examination, which are written based on the ARRT examination. These guides receive mixed reviews, some readers saying they did not contain all the required information for the exam, while others say they were a big help in their studies (Amazon, 2004). I bought the Mosby's book last year thinking it might be a little help studying for my CAMRT exam this spring. The book is useful in that it provides multiple-choice questions to practice with. However, the book does not provide in depth or complete information as I would assume is needed to pass the CAMRT exam. There are currently no published study guides for the CAMRT examinations.

Early after the discovery of X-rays, one journalist suggested that X-rays could be used to directly project radiographic images into the minds of students (Dewing, 1962). If only.

Any wise words of advice on preparing for these exams?

AART. (2010). American Registry of Radiologic Technologists. Retrieved from https://www.arrt.org/

Amazon. (2004). Mosby's Comprehensive Review of Radiography: Customer Reviews. Retrieved from http://www.amazon.ca/Mosbys-Comprehensive-Review-Radiography-Complete/dp/0323054331/ref=pd_sim_b_3

CAMRT (2009). Prep Guide. Retrieved from http://www.camrt.ca/english/certification/pdf/Prep-guide.pdf

Dewing, S. B. (1962). Modern Radiology in Historical Perspective. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publisher

PRC. (2010). Republic of the Philippines Professional Regulation Commission. Retrieved from http://www.prc.gov.ph/default.asp

Towards the Standardization of Exposure Indices

Exposure index is a tool used by Radiological Technologists in digital radiography to assess radiographic exposure. Exposure index is, broadly speaking, a measure of the amount of exposure detected by the image receptor. Accordingly, it depends on the mAs and kV used, the detector area irradiated, and the beam attenuation (Bontrager & Lampignano, 2005). 

Under the reign of film-screen radiography, exposure is directly related to the final density of the image. A measure of exposure is not needed because it is plainly evident on the image. In digital radiography, overexposed images may not be dark and underexposed images may not be light. Post processing ultimately controls the brightness of the image on the monitor. Exposure thus becomes evident only through the noise in the image, more noise coinciding with underexposure. Because of the low resolution displayed by the monitor used by the Radiological Technologist in assessing the image, noise level is sometimes not evident. The exposure index is the indication of an appropriate exposure and resultant image quality (AAPM, 2009)

Depending on what system you use, the concept of an exposure index is represented by one of many terms.  Sensitivity number, log median exposure (lgM), f-number, reached exposure (REX), and detector exposure index (DEX) are just a few used terms, demonstrating the miscellany in nomenclature. It comes as no surprise that all of these ways of describing exposure are actually different, either in the information conveyed or the way it is described (Carlton & Adler, 2005).

Fujifilm's S-number is the oldest exposure indicator, closely mimicking the "speed class" system used in film-screen radiography. Exposure index increases with a decrease in exposure. Kodak's exposure index (EI) is representative of the average pixel value for the clinical area of interest. A change of 300 in the EI indicates a change of a factor of 2 in the exposure. Agfa CR utilizes the "lgM" or log median exposure. A change in the lgM by 0.301, or a logarithm of 2, indicates a change of a factor of 2 in the exposure. Philips EI is inversely proportional to air kerma, and the scale used is represented in bigger discrete steps (200, 250, 320…) which requires a 25% change in exposure per step (AAPM, 2009). This illustrates the large differences in the source and calculation of the exposure indicator.

The American Association of Physicists in Medicine (2009) suggest the standardization of an indicator of exposure to the detector. Not only would it be useful to monitor differences in exposure between systems in a given institution, but it would provide unambiguous information for Technologists working with more than one system. A standardized exposure indicator should, according to the AAPM (2009), reflect the radiation exposure to the detector and image noise. 

The deviation index (DI) is the proposed index to be displayed to the Radiological Technologist immediately after every exposure. The DI is a measure of the relative deviation from the targeted value for a particular body part and view (AAPM, 2009).

American Association of Physicists in Medicine. (2009). An Exposure Indicator for Digital Radiography. Retrieved from http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/rpt_116.pdf

Bontrager, K. L., & Lampignano, J. P. (2005). Textbook of radiographic positioning and related anatomy (6th ed.). Elsevier Science. 

Carlton, R. R. & Adler, A. M. (2005). Principles of radiographic imaging: An art and a science. Delmar Learning. 

Marie Curie in Radiography

Marie Curie is best known for her work in radioactivity. During World War I Curie, through conversation with an eminent radiologist Dr. Henri Beclere, recognized that radiographic equipment was rarely used in the French military. When it was used, the equipment was usually in poor condition and was being used by untrained persons (Quinn, 1996). Curie stopped her work in radioactivity and started working where she was needed most, in radiology (Dewing, 1962).

The French government did not give this work any consideration. She was required to scrounge money, equipment and materials to continue the project. Manufacturers of x-ray equipment were harassed until they would provide what was needed (Dewing, 1962). In fact, Curie faced many obstacles in this endeavour, being a woman, a volunteer, and offering a service that was not offered by the military (Quinn, 1996).

Curie took radiography equipment that was going unutilized in laboratories or in the offices of doctors who had been mobilized, and installed them in hospitals. Marie knew more about medicine than most of her colleagues in physics and chemistry, as her siblings were both medical doctors. Working in radiology allowed her to use her scientific knowledge to aid those who were wounded in war (Quinn, 1996).

While working in hospitals in Paris and from radiologist Dr. Beclere, Curie learned the fundamentals of radiography. With this new knowledge, she taught volunteers of radiological technique and anatomy (Quinn, 1996). She converted her Institute of Radium into a school for radiologic technicians. Between 1916 and 1918, she personally trained 150 female technicians, in addition to American soldiers (Kelves, 1997; Dewing, 1962).
 

Curie (centre) with four of her students (Library of Congress, 1910-1915).

Marie and her seventeen year old daughter, Irene, worked to convert ordinary automobiles into mobile radiography cars, which were called "les voitures radiologique" and sometimes "petits Curies" by the French soldiers. The car's motor powered the x-ray tube. The cars would be packed with all necessary equipment and were embarked by a doctor, a technician, and a driver. Marie learned to drive with the intent of not requiring a chauffeur. She thought that a good team works inter-professionally and transcends their roles (Quinn, 1996; Kelves, 1997).
 

Curie in a mobile radiography car (Centre of History for Physics, 2010)

When the car arrives at the locale of the wounded, the team, within half an hour, unloads and installs the equipment. Then, the team gets to work, where fluoroscopy and radiography are used to examine the patient. Observations are recorded. Then, the team packs up and returns to base to get to work on their next case (Quinn, 1996).

Over the course of the war, Curie helped install 200 x-ray units for the French and Belgian armies, and provided 20 more radiography cars. Before WWI, radiology was on the fringes of medical practice. The mass involvement of radiography throughout the first world war brought radiology to the forefront of medicine (Kelves, 1997).

Center of History for Physics. (2010). Help for the wounded. Retrieved from http://www.aip.org/history/curie/brief/05_campaigns/campaigns_1.html

Dewing, S. B. (1962). Modern Radiology in Historical Perspective. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publisher

Kelves, B. (1997). Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press

Library of Congress (1910-1915). Marie Curie and four of her students. Retrieved from http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/marie-curie-photo.html 

Quinn, S. (1996). Marie Curie: a life. United States of America: Da Capo Press

CBLB502: Radiation Protection Drug

On January 28, 2010, Cleveland BioLabs, Inc. announced that the European Patent Office granted them a patent, "Methods of Protecting Against Radiation Using Flagellin". This patent had already been granted in the United States and 11 other countries. This patent covers the method of protecting a mammal from radiation using flagellin or its derivatives, like CBLB502  (Levine, 2010).

CBLB binds to Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) and turns on the nuclear factor-κB signalling pathway. This results in the induction of factors that protect cells like apoptosis inhibitors and promotes tissue regeneration through cytokines. The drug also inhibits the p53 tumour suppression pathway which is a mechanism by which cancer cells resist radiation.

Radiation is toxic because of the massive apoptosis it causes in radiosensitive organs. CBLB502 operates on the principle that radioprotection is achieved through suppression of apoptosis. CBLB502 protects healthy cells from the harmful effects of radiation, all while allowing the tumours to be better affected by the radiation. 

High-dose ionizing radiation can cause acute radiation syndromes involving the hematopoietic system and the gastrointestinal tract. CBLB502 was effective as a radioprotectant in 19 monkeys who were subjected to 6.5 Gy total body irradiation, which is a lethal dose for 70% of monkeys (LD70). The monkeys received an injection of 0.04mg of CBLB502 45 minutes before the irradiation. This reduced the onset of radiation-induced mortality by 10 days and increased the 40-day survival rate from 25% to 64%. The 7 monkeys who survived 40 days post-irradiation demonstrated minor damage to major hematopoietic and lymphoid organs, the bone marrow, spleen and thymus (Burdelya, et al., 2008). 

Burdelya, et al. (2008) assessed CBLB502 as an adjuvant for anticancer radiotherapy. CBLB502 was injected into mice 1 hour before each of three daily treatments of 4 Gy total body irradiation. The treatment completely prevented radiation-induced mortality or significantly protected against it. The implication of this is that the drug could be used in patients receiving radiotherapy to protect against the adverse effects. The adverse effects of radiation must be managed by limiting the dose applied. If the adverse effects were eliminated, higher doses could be used. 

Another interesting application of the drug is treatment post lethal irradiation. Mice who were exposed to lethal radiation (13 Gy) were rescued by CBLB502 treatment 6 months later. The mice showed signs of radiation-induced tissue damage but had no signs of cancer (Burdelya, et al., 2008).

CBLB502 is still in the early stages of development but it could allow for safer and more effective radiation therapy and protection in overexposures to radiation.

Levine, R. (2010, January 28). Cleveland BioLabs granted European patent for radiation protection drug CBLB502. CNN. Retrieved from http://money.cnn.com/news/newsfeeds/articles/marketwire/0581289.htm

Burdelya, L. G., Krivokrysenko, V. I., Tallant, T. C., Strom, E., Gleiberman, A. S., Gupta, D., … Gudkov, A. V. (2008). An agonist of toll-like receptor 5 has radioprotective activity in primate models. Science, 320(5873), 226-230. Retrieved from http://www.sciencemag.org.ezproxy.library.dal.ca/cgi/content/full/320/5873/226

Radiography as Art

“Not to reproduce what we can already see, but to make visible what we cannot.”

- Paul Klee, on Art (Rajchman, 2000, p. 124)

Shell X-ray #1 (theorem, 2004)

Radiography is an art. Radiographers become technically artistic when they are innovative or creative in adapting routine procedures (Carlton & Adler, 2006, p.221). Some take the meaning of radiography as art more literally. There are many radiographer-artists who use radiography as an artistic medium. Radiography has been used to produce images of flowers, fruit, shells, fish, and other plants and animals, while some artists capture images of much larger things like airplanes and buses.

17 years after the discovery of x-rays, in 1913, Floral radiography was created and published by P. Goby (Raikes, 2003). In 1925, scientists with access to x-ray machines began producing images for artistic purposes. One of these individuals, Dr. Dain Tasker is seen as a pioneer in the use of x-rays as an artistic medium. Tasker created images of flowers. His radiographs were forgotten. When they were found, they were auctioned in New York for over $25,000 each (Koetsier, n.d.). Still today, individuals with access to radiography equipment create images of objects as art. For example, Flickr users Surfactant and theorem.

Wide Open Lotus (Tasker, n.d.)

Nick Veasey is an artist who has pursued artistic radiography as his métier. He produces work for commercial clients in advertising, as well as sells his works to private buyers. Veasey works out of a lab that is used by day in non-destructive testing of pipes. He doesn’t radiograph anything living because the exposures he uses in order to get high resolution images are minutes long and could induce disease or death in live subjects. 

Plane (Veasey, n.d.)

When Veasey images really large objects, like this Boeing 777, he takes many radiographs, and then stitches them together using photoshop. In order to image objects with varying thicknesses, he images the object at different energies, and then layers the images on top of one another to create the image. Using a higher kV allows for better penetration of the thicker parts of the object, but results in a loss of definition of thinner parts. This can burn out some of the fine details on smaller objects like shells as evident in some amateur shell radiography. 

The people in Veasey’s radiographs are actually all the very same skeleton. In the 60s student radiographers learned to take radiographs using cadavers. Although they are no longer used, Veasey has access to one of these cadavers, who he calls Frieda (Veasey, 2009). Frieda is old, fragile, falling apart, and is held together in a rubber suit (Ridgeway, 2009).

While Veaey’s artistic works are fairly diversified, some artists take a more homogenous approach. William Conklin (1994), published an entire book of radiographs of shells. The internal structure of 49 molluscs and a sand dollar are revealed in his book, The Radiographic World of William Conklin. Shells are a common subject of radiography art. This is likely because of their intricate and beautiful inner structure which is invisible unless the shell is broken or cut open or radiographed. 

Albert Koetsier, another radiographer-artist converts the radiograph negative to a positive, using a projector that he designed himself. He colors the images with translucent paints, similar to those used before color photography was invented to color photographs (Koetsier, n.d.). 

Fragments of Eternity: Tulip Composition (Koetsier, n.d.)

Other radiographer artists include Steven Meyers, Leslie Wright, Hugh Turvey, Albert Richards. 

A radiograph of a flower is best imaged using a small focal spot and 10-50kV with a beryllium window. Standard radiography units operate at a minimum of 60 kV and the inherent filtration removes the desirable lower energy photons. A mammography unit might be more suited than a general unit. However, the highest quality images of these delicate structures are produced using specimen radiographic units. These units are designed for imaging small objects and operate with small focal spots, low kV, low mA, and long exposure times. Using long exposure times and low kV allows for adequate film darkening without changing the penetration or kV of the beam (Raikes, 2003). 

Using screens decreases the resolution of the radiograph. For this reason, using screens can be undesirable in the radiography of small specimens because the detail is seen as beautiful (Raikes, 2003). To image a shell using only a film, an exposure of 12000mAs and 40 kV are used (Surfactant, 2007). Film only detects 0.65% of the incident radiation. Conversely, using a screen-film system at 80kV, about 30% of the incident radiation would be detected by the film (Kanal, 2007).

Artistic radiography uses the same principles we use in medical radiography. However, it is done with a different objective. While those performing artistic radiography seek to create a new way of seeing, those performing diagnostic radiography seek to identify the presence or lack of disease or abnormality. Nevertheless, both make the invisible visible.

Carlton, R. R., & Adler, A. M. (2006). Principles of radiographic imaging: An art and a science, 4th ed. United States of America: Thompson Delmar Learning

Conchologists of America, inc. (2010). Book reviews: Inner Dimensions, The Radiographic World of William Bonklin, by William Conklin. Retrieved from http://www.conchologistsofamerica.org/articles/reviews/9512.asp#c

Conklin, W. (1994). Inner Dimensions: The Radiographic World of William Conklin. Wrs Pub.

Kanal, K. (2007). Screen-Film Radiography. Retrieved from http://courses.washington.edu/radxphys/Lectures07-08/Screen-Film_Radiography-070823.pdf

Koetsier, A. (n.d.) Beyond Light: The Art of X-rayography. Retrieved from http://www.beyondlight.com/whatis.html

McMillan, J. (2001). The X-ray art of photographer Judith McMillan. Retrieved from http://www.judithkmcmillan.com/

Rajchman, J. (2000). The Deleuze connections. United States of America: MIT Press

Raikes, M. C. (2003). Floral radiography: Using X rays to Create Fine Art. Radiographics, 23(5), 1149-1154.

Ridgeway, A. (2009, March). X-treme X-ray. BBC Focus Magazine. 60-66.

Surfactant. (2007). Nautilius. Retrieved from http://www.flickr.com/photos/roentgenator/1386363985/in/set-72157601198404570/

Tasker, D. (n.d.). Wide Open Lotus.  Still Life. Panopticon Gallery. Retrieved from http://www.panopt.com/images-new.php?c=3

Veasey, N. (2009). Nick Veasey: Exposing the invisible. Retrieved from http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/nick_veasey_exposing_the_invisible_1.html

Veasey, N (n.d.). X-RAY. Retrieved from http://www.nickveasey.com/ 

The Origin of the Radiological Technologist

Where do we come from? What are we? Where are we going?
- Gauguin

We all know how the story of X-rays began. Remember? On November 8, 1895, Roentgen was in his lab, passing electrical current through a Hittorf tube which was completely contained within a black cardboard box. He was testing the box for light tightness and before he had the chance to test the penetration of cathode rays through the wall of the tube, he noticed the barium platinocyanide screen glowing from across the room (Dewing, 1962, p.28). The rest is history. In a sense, Roentgen was the first radiological technologist.

Roentgen published the first paper on “A New Kind of Rays” in the Wurzburg Physical-Medical Society’s 1895 volume of “Transactions”. Within a few days, newspapers all over the world were announcing the discovery (Dewing, 1962, p.32). Almost everybody was interested in Roentgen’s discovery. Many were reproducing his experiment, everyone from the layman to the professional.

In 1896, the first textbook on radiography was published, “Practical Radiography” by H. S. Ward (Kelves, 1997, p. 304). Also in 1896, books were being published for the general reader (Trevert, 1896/1988). In the beginning, many people were practicing radiography including physicians, physicists, engineers, electricians, nurses, hospital orderlies, photographers, and con artists. By 1905, physicians had gained control of the practice of radiography (Dewing, 1962, p.83). Although, these physicians did employ assistants who worked with them in imaging patients (Dewing, 1962, p.84).

The profession of the Radiographer had been born. In 1896, Elizabeth Fleischmann became a pioneering radiographer. Fleischmann mastered the technique of radiography within a year. She opened the first X-ray laboratory in California. She was the only professional radiographer advertised in the state of California until 1910 (Palmquist, 1990). Fleischmann’s work was noted by the surgeon general to have “nice adjustment of the ray according to the density or character of the object when she desires to photograph” (Kelves, 1997, p.41). She took radiographs from a variety of angles in order to locate the injury more precisely in space (Kelves, 1997).

Fleischmann examining a patient with a fluoroscope (Palmquist, 1990).

In 1935, the formal training of student radiographers began in New South Wales in an “attempt to raise the standard of X-ray technical work and to give the skilled radiographers an adequate status” (Bentley, 2005, p. 45). This training was primarily practical. The first theoretical training began in 1917. In the 1930s, students were to complete 500 radiographic procedures unaided. In 1945, students were required 2 years of training before being able to write the examination. In time, training programs moved from hospital-based programs, into technical colleges (Bentley, 2005).

Today, many training programs have moved into Universities as an undergraduate degree, while some remain in colleges. Additionally, some Universities offer graduate level studies geared towards radiological technologists. The professional roles of radiological technologists vary geographically. Nonetheless, it is constant that the role is continually changing.

To understand the present you must understand the past. History shows us where we have been, where we are, and where we are going.

Bentley, H. B. (2005). Early days of radiography. Radiography, 11, 45-50.

Dewing, S. B. (1962). Modern Radiology in Historical Perspective. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publisher

Kelves, B. (1997). Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press

Palmquist, P. E. (1990). Elizabeth Fleischmann: A Tribute. Retrieved from http://www.cla.purdue.edu/WAAW/palmquist/Photographers/FleischmannEssay.htm

Trevert, E. (1988). Something About X-rays for Everybody. Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing Corporation (Original work published 1896. Lynn, MA: Bubier Publishing)

Radiological Technology on the Internet

In February, 2009, Seth Godin expressed the idea that the Internet has enabled the re-creation of the human social unit from the past, the tribe. According to Godin, the Internet has allowed people with some common interest or goal, who would otherwise not have found each other, to connect and talk about things that they care about. 


There are many resources for information on the Internet, which are not so different from books or journal articles. They are unchanging, one-way modes of communication. Many of us have taken online courses, which are sometimes interactive, but the forced interaction of a limited group oppresses the potential of the interaction. I am primarily interested in the ways in which people are interacting with each other on their own will. This occurs on what is referred to as the read/write web. The Internet has changed the flow of information from unidirectional, to multidirectional. Readers can respond directly to authors to create discussion (Land & Bayne, 2005). The red/write web consists of Blogs, Wikis, social bookmarking, RSS feeds, podcasts, and other forms including those that have yet to be invented (Richardson, 2006).

So, is there a radiological technology community that connects on the Internet? Yes.

Firstly, there are websites where people can meet to talk about radiological technology. For example, Radiology Forums is simply a website where users make posts to participate in discussions. Radiolopolis and Radiography Students are similar, they have forums, but also have more complicated features including instant messaging, groups, and case studies.

Wikiradiography is similar to the popular site Wikipedia. They are wikis. A wiki is an encyclopedia that anyone can edit at any time. Wikiradiography is far from being a complete encyclopedia, but the amount of content available on the site is astounding. The site also allows communication between users in the form of messages and forums. Radiopaedia is another useful wiki with a focus on Radiology. Some may worry that the information in wikis is unreliable and do not think they should be used as an academic tool. They are correct, in my opinion, to a certain extent. Content in wikis may not be a credible source to reference. However, almost all the information in Wikiradiography and Wikipedia is referenced, so you can easily find the original source to verify the accuracy and reference.

There is a proliferation of diverse blogs, including technologist blogs (Juney’s World, X-Rayted, Topics in Radiography, Mountain Imaging, Radiologic Confidential, X-Ray Rocks, Radiology Ramblings), student blogs (Divergent Rays, RT Wannabe) instructor blogs (Lessons in Radiography, The X-ray Chic, Radiology 101), radiologist blogs (Ummara Shares, Scan Man’s Notes, RadGirl Radiology Blog, A Radiology Geek's Blog, Nuclear Vision, Sumer’s Radiology Site), corporate blogs (The DR Blog), and PACS blogs (PACS World,  Dalai's PACS Blog). On the Internet, a new blog is created every second, but two thirds of all blogs go for more than 2 months without being updated (Richardson, 2006). This holds true for blogs in the radiological technology domain. Most of these blogs have not been updated for quite some time.

The connections made through the read/write web are unique because they bridge gaps in space and time. Users can converse with other users anywhere with Internet access. Conversations can occur over longer periods of time. The Internet allows a shift in focus from the transmission of information, to the negotiation of information (Land & Bayne, 2005). Additionally, all users are created equally, giving rise to a democratic playing field and promoting Socratic questioning. Through all of this, a group of people with similar interests, become a community through the interactions they create.

Godin, S. (2009). Seth Godin on the Tribes We Lead. Retrieved from  http://www.ted.com/talks/seth_godin_on_the_tribes_we_lead.html

Land, R., & Bayne, S. (2005).  Education in Cyberspace. New York, NY: RoutledgeFalmer.

Richardson, W. (2006).  Blogs, Wikis, Podcasts, and Other Powerful Web Tools for Classrooms. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

About This Blog

Hi. My name is Elise. I’m a 4th year student doing a Bachelor of Health Sciences in Radiological Technology. 

This is a blog I started as a school project. This is the first post. My goal with this blog is to share information about things that are interesting and relevant to the field of radiological technology, as well as incite discussion online among the radiological technology community.